1000 Ml Is Equal To

Transparent not-crystalline solid material

Glass is a non-crystalline, often transparent baggy solid, that has widespread practical, technological, and decorative utilise in, for example, window panes, tableware, and optics. Glass is most oftentimes formed by rapid cooling (quenching) of the molten form; some glasses such as volcanic glass are naturally occurring. The near familiar, and historically the oldest, types of manufactured drinking glass are "silicate glasses" based on the chemical compound silica (silicon dioxide, or quartz), the primary constituent of sand. Soda–lime glass, containing effectually 70% silica, accounts for around 90% of manufactured glass. The term glass, in popular usage, is often used to refer only to this blazon of material, although silica-free spectacles often have desirable properties for applications in modern communications technology. Some objects, such as drinking glasses and eyeglasses, are so normally made of silicate-based drinking glass that they are simply called by the proper noun of the fabric.

Although information technology is brittle, buried silicate drinking glass will survive for very long periods if non disturbed, and many examples of glass fragments be from early drinking glass-making cultures. Archaeological evidence suggests glass-making dates back to at least iii,600 BC in Mesopotamia, Arab republic of egypt, or Syria. The earliest known glass objects were beads, peradventure created accidentally during metalworking or the production of faience. Due to its ease of formability into any shape, drinking glass has been traditionally used for vessels, such equally bowls, vases, bottles, jars and drinking spectacles. In its most solid forms, it has also been used for paperweights and marbles. Glass can be coloured by adding metal salts or painted and printed as enamelled glass. The refractive, reflective and manual properties of drinking glass make drinking glass suitable for manufacturing optical lenses, prisms, and optoelectronics materials. Extruded glass fibres have awarding as optical fibres in communications networks, thermal insulating material when disordered as glass wool so as to trap air, or in glass-fibre reinforced plastic (fibreglass).

Microscopic construction

The baggy structure of glassy silica (SiO_ii) in two dimensions. No long-range lodge is present, although there is local ordering with respect to the tetrahedral arrangement of oxygen (O) atoms around the silicon (Si) atoms.

Microscopically, a single crystal has atoms in a virtually-perfect periodic arrangement; a polycrystal is equanimous of many microscopic crystals; and an amorphous solid such equally glass has no periodic organisation even microscopically.

The standard definition of a glass (or vitreous solid) is a solid formed by rapid cook quenching.^{[1] [2] [iii] [4]} However, the term "glass" is often divers in a broader sense, to depict whatsoever non-crystalline (amorphous) solid that exhibits a drinking glass transition when heated towards the liquid state.^{[four] [5]}

Glass is an amorphous solid. Although the atomic-scale structure of glass shares characteristics of the structure of a supercooled liquid, drinking glass exhibits all the mechanical properties of a solid.^{[6] [7] [8]} As in other baggy solids, the atomic structure of a glass lacks the long-range periodicity observed in crystalline solids. Due to chemical bonding constraints, glasses do possess a high degree of brusque-range lodge with respect to local atomic polyhedra.^[9] The notion that glass flows to an appreciable extent over extended periods of time is not supported by empirical research or theoretical analysis (meet viscosity in solids). Laboratory measurements of room temperature glass flow practise evidence a movement consequent with a material viscosity on the order of ten¹⁷–x¹⁸ Pa s.^{[5] [ten]}

Germination from a supercooled liquid

Unsolved problem in physics :

What is the nature of the transition betwixt a fluid or regular solid and a glassy stage? "The deepest and most interesting unsolved trouble in solid country theory is probably the theory of the nature of glass and the glass transition." —P.W. Anderson^[xi]

For cook quenching, if the cooling is sufficiently rapid (relative to the characteristic crystallization fourth dimension) then crystallization is prevented and instead the disordered atomic configuration of the supercooled liquid is frozen into the solid state at T_g. The trend for a material to form a glass while quenched is called glass-forming ability. This ability can be predicted by the rigidity theory.^[12] Generally, a drinking glass exists in a structurally metastable state with respect to its crystalline form, although in sure circumstances, for example in atactic polymers, at that place is no crystalline counterpart of the baggy phase.^[xiii]

Glass is sometimes considered to be a liquid due to its lack of a get-go-order phase transition^{[7] [xiv]} where sure thermodynamic variables such every bit book, entropy and enthalpy are discontinuous through the glass transition range. The glass transition may be described as analogous to a second-order stage transition where the intensive thermodynamic variables such every bit the thermal expansivity and rut chapters are discontinuous, withal this is wrong.^[2] The equilibrium theory of stage transformations do non hold for glass, and hence the glass transition cannot be classed equally i of the classical equilibrium phase transformations in solids.^{[iv] [five]} Furthermore, it does not describe the temperature dependence of Tg upon heating rate, equally establish in differential scanning calorimetry.

Occurrence in nature

Drinking glass can grade naturally from volcanic magma. Obsidian is a mutual volcanic glass with high silica (SiO_ii) content formed when felsic lava extruded from a volcano cools rapidly.^[xv] Impactite is a form of glass formed past the impact of a meteorite, where Moldavite (found in central and eastern Europe), and Libyan desert glass (found in areas in the eastern Sahara, the deserts of eastern Libya and western Egypt) are notable examples.^[sixteen] Vitrification of quartz can also occur when lightning strikes sand, forming hollow, branching rootlike structures called fulgurites.^[17] Trinitite is a burnished residue formed from the desert floor sand at the Trinity nuclear flop test site.^[18] Edeowie glass, institute in South Australia, is proposed to originate from Pleistocene grassland fires, lightning strikes, or hypervelocity impact past one or several asteroids or comets.^[xix]

• 

• 

• 

History

Naturally occurring obsidian glass was used by Stone Age societies every bit information technology fractures along very sharp edges, making it platonic for cut tools and weapons.^{[xx] [21]} Glassmaking dates back at least 6000 years, long before humans had discovered how to smelt iron.^[20] Archaeological evidence suggests that the first true synthetic drinking glass was made in Lebanon and the coastal north Syria, Mesopotamia or ancient Egypt.^{[22] [23]} The primeval known glass objects, of the mid-tertiary millennium BC, were beads, mayhap initially created equally adventitious by-products of metalworking (slags) or during the production of faience, a pre-glass vitreous fabric made by a process similar to glazing.^[24] Early on glass was rarely transparent and often contained impurities and imperfections,^[twenty] and is technically faience rather than true drinking glass, which did non appear until the 15th century BC.^[25] However, red-orange glass chaplet excavated from the Indus Valley Culture dated before 1700 BC (possibly as early equally 1900 BC) predate sustained glass production, which appeared around 1600 BC in Mesopotamia and 1500 BC in Egypt.^{[26] [27]} During the Late Bronze Historic period in that location was a rapid growth in glassmaking engineering in Egypt and Southwest asia.^[22] Archaeological finds from this menstruation include coloured drinking glass ingots, vessels, and beads.^{[22] [28]} Much early drinking glass product relied on grinding techniques borrowed from stoneworking, such as grinding and carving glass in a common cold state.^[29]

The term drinking glass developed in the late Roman Empire. It was in the Roman glassmaking middle at Trier (located in current-24-hour interval Federal republic of germany) that the late-Latin term glesum originated, probably from a Germanic word for a transparent, lustrous substance.^[30] Glass objects accept been recovered beyond the Roman Empire^[31] in domestic, funerary,^[32] and industrial contexts,^[33] every bit well every bit merchandise items in marketplaces in afar provinces.^{[34] [35]} Examples of Roman glass have been found outside of the onetime Roman Empire in Cathay,^[36] the Baltics, the Middle East, and Republic of india.^[37] The Romans perfected cameo glass, produced by etching and carving through fused layers of unlike colours to produce a pattern in relief on the drinking glass object.^[38]

Windows in the choir of the Basilica of Saint-Denis, one of the earliest uses of extensive areas of glass (early 13th-century architecture with restored glass of the 19th century)

In mail service-classical West Africa, Benin was a manufacturer of glass and drinking glass beads.^[39] Glass was used extensively in Europe during the Middle Ages. Anglo-Saxon drinking glass has been establish across England during archaeological excavations of both settlement and cemetery sites.^[xl] From the 10th century onwards, glass was employed in stained glass windows of churches and cathedrals, with famous examples at Chartres Cathedral and the Basilica of Saint-Denis. By the 14th century, architects were designing buildings with walls of stained glass such every bit Sainte-Chapelle, Paris, (1203–1248) and the East stop of Gloucester Cathedral. With the change in architectural style during the Renaissance flow in Europe, the use of large stained drinking glass windows became much less prevalent,^[41] although stained glass had a major revival with Gothic Revival architecture in the 19th century.^[42]

During the 13th century, the island of Murano, Venice, became a centre for glass making, building on medieval techniques to produce colourful ornamental pieces in large quantities.^[38] Murano drinking glass makers developed the uncommonly clear colourless drinking glass cristallo, so called for its resemblance to natural crystal, which was extensively used for windows, mirrors, ships' lanterns, and lenses.^[xx] In the 13th, 14th, and 15th centuries, enamelling and gilding on drinking glass vessels was perfected in Egypt and Syria.^[43] Towards the end of the 17th century, Bohemia became an important region for drinking glass production, remaining and so until the start of the 20th century. By the 17th century, glass in the Venetian tradition was also being produced in England. In almost 1675, George Ravenscroft invented lead crystal glass, with cutting glass condign fashionable in the 18th century.^[38] Ornamental drinking glass objects became an important fine art medium during the Art Nouveau catamenia in the late 19th century.^[38]

Throughout the 20th century, new mass production techniques led to widespread availability of glass in much larger amounts, making information technology practical every bit a edifice material and enabling new applications of drinking glass.^[44] In the 1920s a mould-etch process was developed, in which art was etched straight into the mould, and so that each cast piece emerged from the mould with the image already on the surface of the drinking glass. This reduced manufacturing costs and, combined with a wider use of coloured glass, led to inexpensive glassware in the 1930s, which later became known equally Depression glass.^[45] In the 1950s, Pilkington Bros., England, developed the bladder glass procedure, producing loftier-quality distortion-free apartment sheets of glass by floating on molten tin.^[xx] Modern multi-story buildings are frequently constructed with curtain walls fabricated nigh entirely of glass.^[46] Laminated glass has been widely applied to vehicles for windscreens.^[47] Optical glass for glasses has been used since the Heart Ages.^[48] The production of lenses has get increasingly expert, aiding astronomers^[49] equally well as having other application in medicine and science.^[50] Glass is also employed every bit the aperture cover in many solar free energy collectors.^[51]

In the 21st century, drinking glass manufacturers have adult different brands of chemically strengthened glass for widespread application in touchscreens for smartphones, tablet computers, and many other types of information appliances. These include Gorilla Glass, developed and manufactured past Corning, AGC Inc.'s Dragontrail and Schott AG's Xensation.^{[52] [53] [54]}

Physical properties

Optical

Glass is in widespread use in optical systems due to its ability to refract, reflect, and transmit calorie-free following geometrical optics. The virtually common and oldest applications of glass in optics are as lenses, windows, mirrors, and prisms.^[55] The central optical properties refractive index, dispersion, and manual, of glass are strongly dependent on chemical limerick and, to a bottom caste, its thermal history.^[55] Optical glass typically has a refractive index of ane.four to 2.4, and an Abbe number (which characterises dispersion) of fifteen to 100.^[55] Refractive alphabetize may be modified past high-density (refractive index increases) or low-density (refractive index decreases) additives.^[56]

Glass transparency results from the absenteeism of grain boundaries which diffusely scatter lite in polycrystalline materials.^[57] Semi-opacity due to crystallization may be induced in many spectacles by maintaining them for a long menstruum at a temperature merely insufficient to cause fusion. In this way, the crystalline, devitrified material, known as Réaumur'due south glass porcelain is produced.^{[43] [58]} Although generally transparent to visible lite, spectacles may be opaque to other wavelengths of lite. While silicate spectacles are generally opaque to infrared wavelengths with a transmission cut-off at 4 μm, heavy-metal fluoride and chalcogenide glasses are transparent to infrared wavelengths of up to vii and up to xviii μm, respectively.^[59] The addition of metallic oxides results in dissimilar coloured spectacles as the metallic ions will absorb wavelengths of lite corresponding to specific colours.^[59]

Other

In the manufacturing process, glasses can exist poured, formed, extruded and moulded into forms ranging from apartment sheets to highly intricate shapes.^[60] The finished product is breakable and will fracture, unless laminated or tempered to enhance immovability.^{[61] [62]} Drinking glass is typically inert, resistant to chemic assault, and can mostly withstand the activeness of h2o, making it an ideal material for the manufacture of containers for foodstuffs and nearly chemicals.^{[20] [63] [64]} Nevertheless, although usually highly resistant to chemical attack, glass will corrode or deliquesce nether some conditions.^{[63] [65]} The materials that make up a item drinking glass composition have an event on how quickly the glass corrodes. Glasses containing a high proportion of alkali or alkaline globe elements are more susceptible to corrosion than other glass compositions.^{[66] [67]}

The density of glass varies with chemical limerick with values ranging from ii.2 grams per cubic centimetre (2,200 kg/one thousand^three) for fused silica to 7.2 grams per cubic centimetre (7,200 kg/m³) for dense flint drinking glass.^[68] Drinking glass is stronger than nearly metals, with a theoretical tensile strength for pure, flawless glass estimated at xiv gigapascals (2,000,000 psi) to 35 gigapascals (five,100,000 psi) due to its ability to undergo reversible compression without fracture. Notwithstanding, the presence of scratches, bubbling, and other microscopic flaws pb to a typical range of 14 megapascals (2,000 psi) to 175 megapascals (25,400 psi) in almost commercial glasses.^[59] Several processes such as toughening can increment the strength of glass.^[69] Carefully drawn flawless drinking glass fibres can be produced with force of upward to 11.5 gigapascals (one,670,000 psi).^[59]

Reputed menstruum

The observation that old windows are sometimes constitute to be thicker at the bottom than at the top is often offered as supporting evidence for the view that glass flows over a timescale of centuries, the assumption being that the drinking glass has exhibited the liquid property of flowing from one shape to another.^[70] This assumption is wrong, equally one time solidified, glass stops flowing. The sags and ripples observed in erstwhile glass were already there the twenty-four hour period it was made; manufacturing processes used in the past produced sheets with imperfect surfaces and non-uniform thickness.^[vii] (The near-perfect bladder glass used today only became widespread in the 1960s.)

The rate of glass menses in mediaeval windows was calculated in 2017. Information technology was institute that the glass was 16 orders of magnitude (10^sixteen times) less gummy (hence freer-flowing) than expected at room temperature—16 orders of magnitude less than previous estimates based on soda–lime–silicate drinking glass. It was estimated that the charge per unit of flow would not exceed 1nm per billion years.^{[71] [72]}

Types

Silicate

Quartz sand (silica) is the main raw cloth in commercial glass production

Silicon dioxide (SiO₂) is a common fundamental constituent of glass. Fused quartz is a glass fabricated from chemically-pure silica.^[67] It has very depression thermal expansion and first-class resistance to thermal shock, being able to survive immersion in water while carmine hot, resists high temperatures (m–1500 °C) and chemical weathering, and is very hard. It is likewise transparent to a wider spectral range than ordinary glass, extending from the visible further into both the UV and IR ranges, and is sometimes used where transparency to these wavelengths is necessary. Fused quartz is used for high-temperature applications such every bit furnace tubes, lighting tubes, melting crucibles, etc.^[73] However, its high melting temperature (1723 °C) and viscosity make information technology difficult to work with. Therefore, normally, other substances (fluxes) are added to lower the melting temperature and simplify glass processing.^[74]

Soda–lime

Sodium carbonate (Na₂CO₃, "soda") is a mutual condiment and acts to lower the glass-transition temperature. However, sodium silicate is water-soluble, so lime (CaO, calcium oxide, generally obtained from limestone), forth with magnesium oxide (MgO), and aluminium oxide (Al_twoO₃), are unremarkably added to improve chemical durability. Soda–lime spectacles (Na₂O) + lime (CaO) + magnesia (MgO) + alumina (Al₂O₃) account for over 75% of manufactured drinking glass, containing about 70 to 74% silica by weight.^{[67] [75]} Soda–lime–silicate glass is transparent, easily formed, and nigh suitable for window glass and tableware.^[76] However, information technology has a high thermal expansion and poor resistance to rut.^[76] Soda–lime drinking glass is typically used for windows, bottles, light bulbs, and jars.^[74]

Borosilicate

Borosilicate glasses (eastward.g. Pyrex, Duran) typically contain v–13% boron trioxide (B₂O₃).^[74] Borosilicate glasses have fairly low coefficients of thermal expansion (7740 Pyrex CTE is 3.25×10 ^−vi /°C^[77] as compared to near ix×10 ⁻⁶ /°C for a typical soda–lime drinking glass^[78]). They are, therefore, less bailiwick to stress caused by thermal expansion and thus less vulnerable to neat from thermal shock. They are commonly used for east.g. labware, household cookware, and sealed beam auto caput lamps.^[74]

Lead

The improver of atomic number 82(II) oxide into silicate drinking glass lowers melting point and viscosity of the melt.^[79] The high density of lead drinking glass (silica + lead oxide (PbO) + potassium oxide (K_twoO) + soda (Na₂O) + zinc oxide (ZnO) + alumina) results in a high electron density, and hence high refractive index, making the wait of glassware more brilliant and causing noticeably more specular reflection and increased optical dispersion.^{[67] [80]} Pb drinking glass has a high elasticity, making the glassware more workable and giving ascension to a clear "band" sound when struck. However, lead drinking glass cannot withstand high temperatures well.^[73] Pb oxide also facilitates solubility of other metallic oxides and is used in colored glass. The viscosity decrease of lead glass cook is very pregnant (roughly 100 times in comparison with soda drinking glass); this allows easier removal of bubbles and working at lower temperatures, hence its frequent employ as an condiment in vitreous enamels and drinking glass solders. The high ionic radius of the Pb²⁺ ion renders it highly immobile and hinders the movement of other ions; atomic number 82 spectacles therefore take high electrical resistance, about two orders of magnitude higher than soda–lime glass (10^8.five vs 10^{half dozen.five} Ω⋅cm, DC at 250 °C).^[81]

Aluminosilicate

Aluminosilicate glass typically contains five–10% alumina (Al₂O₃). Aluminosilicate drinking glass tends to be more than hard to melt and shape compared to borosilicate compositions, simply has splendid thermal resistance and immovability.^[74] Aluminosilicate glass is extensively used for fiberglass,^[82] used for making glass-reinforced plastics (boats, fishing rods, etc.), peak-of-stove cookware, and halogen seedling glass.^{[73] [74]}

Other oxide additives

The addition of barium also increases the refractive index. Thorium oxide gives glass a loftier refractive alphabetize and low dispersion and was formerly used in producing high-quality lenses, but due to its radioactivity has been replaced by lanthanum oxide in mod eyeglasses.^[83] Iron can exist incorporated into glass to blot infrared radiations, for example in rut-absorbing filters for flick projectors, while cerium(IV) oxide tin be used for drinking glass that absorbs ultraviolet wavelengths.^[84] Fluorine lowers the dielectric constant of glass. Fluorine is highly electronegative and lowers the polarizability of the fabric. Fluoride silicate glasses are used in manufacture of integrated circuits as an insulator.^[85]

Glass-ceramics

Drinking glass-ceramic materials contain both not-crystalline glass and crystalline ceramic phases. They are formed by controlled nucleation and fractional crystallisation of a base glass by heat treatment.^[86] Crystalline grains are oftentimes embedded within a non-crystalline intergranular phase of grain boundaries. Drinking glass-ceramics exhibit advantageous thermal, chemical, biological, and dielectric properties as compared to metals or organic polymers.^[86]

The most commercially important belongings of drinking glass-ceramics is their imperviousness to thermal stupor. Thus, glass-ceramics have become extremely useful for countertop cooking and industrial processes. The negative thermal expansion coefficient (CTE) of the crystalline ceramic phase tin be counterbalanced with the positive CTE of the glassy phase. At a sure signal (~70% crystalline) the glass-ceramic has a internet CTE near zero. This type of glass-ceramic exhibits excellent mechanical properties and can sustain repeated and quick temperature changes up to 1000 °C.^{[87] [86]}

Fibreglass

Fibreglass (as well called drinking glass fibre reinforced plastic, GRP) is a blended material made by reinforcing a plastic resin with glass fibres. Information technology is made by melting glass and stretching the glass into fibres. These fibres are woven together into a cloth and left to prepare in a plastic resin.^{[88] [89] [xc]} Fibreglass has the backdrop of beingness lightweight and corrosion resistant, and is a good insulator enabling its utilize as building insulation material and for electronic housing for consumer products. Fibreglass was originally used in the Britain and United States during Globe War 2 to manufacture radomes. Uses of fibreglass include edifice and construction materials, boat hulls, car body parts, and aerospace composite materials.^{[91] [88] [ninety]}

Glass-fibre wool is an fantabulous thermal and audio insulation textile, commonly used in buildings (e.k. attic and crenel wall insulation), and plumbing (e.g. pipage insulation), and soundproofing.^[91] It is produced by forcing molten drinking glass through a fine mesh by centripetal strength, and breaking the extruded glass fibres into short lengths using a stream of loftier-velocity air. The fibres are bonded with an adhesive spray and the resulting wool mat is cut and packed in rolls or panels.^[59]

Non-silicate

Besides common silica-based glasses many other inorganic and organic materials may also form glasses, including metals, aluminates, phosphates, borates, chalcogenides, fluorides, germanates (glasses based on GeO₂), tellurites (glasses based on TeO_ii), antimonates (glasses based on Sb₂O₃), arsenates (glasses based on As_iiO_three), titanates (glasses based on TiO₂), tantalates (glasses based on Ta_iiO₅), nitrates, carbonates, plastics, acrylic, and many other substances.^[5] Some of these glasses (e.thousand. Germanium dioxide (GeO_ii, Germania), in many respects a structural counterpart of silica, fluoride, aluminate, phosphate, borate, and chalcogenide spectacles) have physico-chemic properties useful for their application in fibre-optic waveguides in communication networks and other specialized technological applications.^{[93] [94]}

Silica-gratis glasses may oft have poor glass forming tendencies. Novel techniques, including containerless processing past aerodynamic levitation (cooling the melt whilst information technology floats on a gas stream) or splat quenching (pressing the cook between two metal anvils or rollers), may be used increase cooling rate, or reduce crystal nucleation triggers.^{[95] [96] [97]}

Amorphous metals

Samples of baggy metallic, with millimeter calibration

In the by, modest batches of baggy metals with high surface surface area configurations (ribbons, wires, films, etc.) take been produced through the implementation of extremely rapid rates of cooling. Amorphous metal wires have been produced by sputtering molten metal onto a spinning metallic disk.^{[98] [99]}

A number of alloys take been produced in layers with thickness exceeding one millimeter. These are known every bit majority metallic glasses (BMG). Liquidmetal Technologies sell a number of zirconium-based BMGs.

Batches of amorphous steel have besides been produced that demonstrate mechanical properties far exceeding those found in conventional steel alloys.^[100]

Experimental bear witness indicates that the system Al-Fe-Si may undergo a start-order transition to an amorphous form (dubbed "q-glass") on rapid cooling from the melt. Transmission electron microscopy (TEM) images signal that q-glass nucleates from the cook as discrete particles with a uniform spherical growth in all directions. While 10-ray diffraction reveals the isotropic nature of q-glass, a nucleation bulwark exists implying an interfacial discontinuity (or internal surface) between the glass and melt phases.^{[101] [102]}

Polymers

Important polymer glasses include baggy and glassy pharmaceutical compounds. These are useful because the solubility of the chemical compound is greatly increased when information technology is baggy compared to the same crystalline composition. Many emerging pharmaceuticals are practically insoluble in their crystalline forms.^[103] Many polymer thermoplastics familiar from everyday use are glasses. For many applications, similar glass bottles or eyewear, polymer spectacles (acrylic drinking glass, polycarbonate or polyethylene terephthalate) are a lighter alternative to traditional drinking glass.^[104]

Molecular liquids and molten salts

Molecular liquids, electrolytes, molten salts, and aqueous solutions are mixtures of different molecules or ions that do not form a covalent network only interact only through weak van der Waals forces or through transient hydrogen bonds. In a mixture of iii or more ionic species of different size and shape, crystallization tin can be so hard that the liquid tin easily exist supercooled into a glass.^{[105] [106]} Examples include LiCl:RH₂O (a solution of lithium chloride table salt and water molecules) in the composition range 4<R<8.^[107] sugar drinking glass,^[108] or Ca_0.4K_0.6(NO_three)_1.4.^[109] Drinking glass electrolytes in the form of Ba-doped Li-glass and Ba-doped Na-glass have been proposed as solutions to issues identified with organic liquid electrolytes used in modern lithium-ion battery cells.^[110]

Product

Robotized bladder drinking glass unloading

Post-obit the glass batch preparation and mixing, the raw materials are transported to the furnace. Soda–lime glass for mass production is melted in drinking glass melting furnaces. Smaller calibration furnaces for specialty glasses include electric melters, pot furnaces, and day tanks.^[75] After melting, homogenization and refining (removal of bubbling), the glass is formed. Apartment glass for windows and similar applications is formed past the bladder glass process, developed between 1953 and 1957 by Sir Alastair Pilkington and Kenneth Bickerstaff of the UK's Pilkington Brothers, who created a continuous ribbon of glass using a molten tin bath on which the molten drinking glass flows unhindered nether the influence of gravity. The meridian surface of the glass is subjected to nitrogen nether pressure to obtain a polished finish.^[111] Container glass for common bottles and jars is formed by blowing and pressing methods.^[112] This glass is often slightly modified chemically (with more than alumina and calcium oxide) for greater water resistance.^[113]

Once the desired form is obtained, glass is unremarkably annealed for the removal of stresses and to increase the drinking glass's hardness and durability.^[114] Surface treatments, coatings or lamination may follow to improve the chemical immovability (glass container coatings, glass container internal treatment), strength (toughened glass, bulletproof glass, windshields^[115]), or optical properties (insulated glazing, anti-reflective coating).^[116]

New chemical glass compositions or new treatment techniques can be initially investigated in small-scale-scale laboratory experiments. The raw materials for laboratory-scale glass melts are oftentimes dissimilar from those used in mass product considering the cost gene has a depression priority. In the laboratory more often than not pure chemicals are used. Care must exist taken that the raw materials take non reacted with moisture or other chemicals in the environment (such every bit alkali or alkaline earth metallic oxides and hydroxides, or boron oxide), or that the impurities are quantified (loss on ignition).^[117] Evaporation losses during glass melting should be considered during the option of the raw materials, e.g., sodium selenite may be preferred over hands evaporating selenium dioxide (SeO₂). Also, more readily reacting raw materials may exist preferred over relatively inert ones, such as aluminum hydroxide (Al(OH)₃) over alumina (Al₂O₃). Usually, the melts are carried out in platinum crucibles to reduce contamination from the crucible cloth. Glass homogeneity is achieved by homogenizing the raw materials mixture (glass batch), by stirring the melt, and by burdensome and re-melting the first melt. The obtained drinking glass is usually annealed to prevent breakage during processing.^{[117] [118]}

Color

Colour in glass may exist obtained by improver of homogenously distributed electrically charged ions (or colour centres). While ordinary soda–lime drinking glass appears colourless in thin department, fe(II) oxide (FeO) impurities produce a dark-green tint in thick sections.^[119] Manganese dioxide (MnO_two), which gives drinking glass a regal colour, may be added to remove the green tint given past FeO.^[120] FeO and chromium(Three) oxide (Cr_twoO₃) additives are used in the production of green bottles.^[119] Iron (III) oxide, on the other-manus, produces xanthous or yellow-brown glass.^[121] Depression concentrations (0.025 to 0.1%) of cobalt oxide (CoO) produces rich, deep blue cobalt glass.^[122] Chromium is a very powerful colourising agent, yielding dark green.^[123] Sulphur combined with carbon and iron salts produces bister glass ranging from yellowish to well-nigh black.^[124] A glass melt can also acquire an amber colour from a reducing combustion temper.^[125] Cadmium sulfide produces majestic cherry, and combined with selenium tin can produce shades of yellow, orangish, and ruddy.^{[119] [121]} The condiment Copper(Two) oxide (CuO) produces a turquoise colour in glass, in contrast to Copper(I) oxide (Cu₂O) which gives a tedious chocolate-brown-red colour.^[126]

• 

• 

  Scarlet glass bottle with yellow drinking glass overlay

• 

  Bister-coloured glass

• 

  Four-color Roman glass basin, manufactured circa 1st century B.C.

Uses

Architecture and windows

Soda–lime sheet glass is typically used equally transparent glazing material, typically as windows in external walls of buildings. Float or rolled sheet drinking glass products is cut to size either by scoring and snapping the material, laser cutting, water jets, or diamond bladed saw. The drinking glass may be thermally or chemically tempered (strengthened) for safety and bent or curved during heating. Surface coatings may exist added for specific functions such as scratch resistance, blocking specific wavelengths of light (e.g. infrared or ultraviolet), dirt-repellence (east.g. self-cleaning glass), or switchable electrochromic coatings.^[127]

Structural glazing systems represent one of the most significant architectural innovations of mod times, where glass buildings at present frequently dominate skylines of many mod cities.^[128] These systems apply stainless steel fittings countersunk into recesses in the corners of the glass panels allowing strengthened panes to appear unsupported creating a flush outside.^[128] Structural glazing systems have their roots in iron and drinking glass conservatories of the nineteenth century^[129]

Tableware

Glass is an essential component of tableware and is typically used for water, beer and wine drinking glasses.^[50] Wine glasses are typically stemware, i.e. goblets formed from a basin, stem, and pes. Crystal or Lead crystal glass may be cut and polished to produce decorative drinking glasses with gleaming facets.^{[130] [131]} Other uses of glass in tableware include decanters, jugs, plates, and bowls.^[50]

• 

  Wine glasses and other glass tableware

• 

  Dimpled glass beer pint jug

• 

• 

Packaging

The inert and impermeable nature of glass makes it a stable and widely used material for food and drink packaging as glass bottles and jars. Near container glass is soda–lime glass, produced by blowing and pressing techniques. Container drinking glass has a lower magnesium oxide and sodium oxide content than flat glass, and a college silica, calcium oxide, and aluminum oxide content.^[132] Its higher content of water-insoluble oxides imparts slightly higher chemical immovability confronting water, which is advantageous for storing beverages and food. Drinking glass packaging is sustainable, readily recycled, reusable and refillable.^[133]

For electronics applications, glass can be used as a substrate in the manufacture of integrated passive devices, thin-film bulk audio-visual resonators, and as a hermetic sealing material in device packaging,^{[134] [135]} including very sparse solely glass based encapsulation of integrated circuits and other semiconductors in high manufacturing volumes.^[136]

Laboratories

Glass is an of import cloth in scientific laboratories for the industry of experimental apparatus considering it is relatively cheap, readily formed into required shapes for experiment, like shooting fish in a barrel to proceed make clean, tin can withstand heat and cold treatment, is generally non-reactive with many reagents, and its transparency allows for the observation of chemical reactions and processes.^{[137] [138]} Laboratory glassware applications include flasks, petri dishes, test tubes, pipettes, graduated cylinders, drinking glass lined metallic containers for chemical processing, fractionation columns, glass pipes, Schlenk lines, gauges, and thermometers.^{[139] [137]} Although most standard laboratory glassware has been mass-produced since the 1920s, scientists withal employ skilled glassblowers to manufacture bespoke glass appliance for their experimental requirements.^[140]

• 

  A Vigreux column in a laboratory setup

• 

• 

Optics

Glass is a ubiquitous cloth in eyes by virtue of its ability to refract, reflect, and transmit light. These and other optical properties can be controlled by varying chemical compositions, thermal treatment, and manufacturing techniques. The many applications of glass in optics includes glasses for eyesight correction, imaging optics (e.g. lenses and mirrors in telescopes, microscopes, and cameras), fibre optics in telecommunication technology, and integrated optics. Microlenses and gradient-index optics (where the refractive index is non-uniform) discover application in due east.g. reading optical discs, laser printers, photocopiers, and laser diodes.^[55]

Art

Part of German stained glass panel of 1444 with the Visitation; pot metal coloured glass of diverse colours, including white glass, blackness vitreous paint, xanthous silver stain, and the "olive-dark-green" parts are enamel. The plant patterns in the red sky are formed by scratching away black paint from the red drinking glass earlier firing. A restored panel with new lead cames.

Glass as art dates to least 1300 BC shown as an example of natural glass found in Tutankhamun's pectoral,^[141] which also independent vitreous enamel, that is to say, melted coloured drinking glass used on a metal backing. Enamelled drinking glass, the decoration of glass vessels with coloured glass paints, has existed since 1300 BC,^[142] and was prominent in the early 20th century with Art Nouveau glass and that of the House of Fabergé in St. Petersburg, Russian federation. Both techniques were used in stained glass, which reached its height roughly from grand to 1550, before a revival in the 19th century.

The 19th century saw a revival in aboriginal glass-making techniques including cameo drinking glass, achieved for the first time since the Roman Empire, initially generally for pieces in a neo-classical style. The Art Nouveau movement made corking utilize of drinking glass, with René Lalique, Émile Gallé, and Daum of Nancy in the first French wave of the motility, producing coloured vases and like pieces, often in cameo glass or in lustre drinking glass techniques.^[143]

Louis Comfort Tiffany in America specialized in stained glass, both secular and religious, in panels and his famous lamps. The early 20th-century saw the large-scale factory production of glass fine art by firms such as Waterford and Lalique. Small-scale studios may hand-produce drinking glass artworks. Techniques for producing glass art include blowing, kiln-casting, fusing, slumping, pâte de verre, flame-working, hot-sculpting and cold-working. Common cold work includes traditional stained glass work and other methods of shaping glass at room temperature. Objects made out of glass include vessels, paperweights, marbles, beads, sculptures and installation art.^[144]

• 

  Émile Gallé, Marquetry glass vase with clematis flowers (1890-1900)

• 

• 

• 

  A glass sculpture past Dale Chihuly, "The Sun" at the "Gardens of Glass" exhibition in Kew Gardens, London

• 

  Modern stained glass window

Encounter besides

• Fire glass
• Flexible glass
• Kimberley points
• Prince Rupert'due south drop
• Smart glass

References

1. ^ ASTM definition of glass from 1945
2. ^ ^{a b} Zallen, R. (1983). The Physics of Amorphous Solids. New York: John Wiley. pp. ane–32. ISBN978-0-471-01968-8.
3. ^ Cusack, N.E. (1987). The physics of structurally disordered matter: an introduction. Adam Hilger in association with the University of Sussex press. p. xiii. ISBN978-0-85274-829-9.
4. ^ ^{a b c} Scholze, Horst (1991). Drinking glass – Nature, Structure, and Backdrop. Springer. pp. 3–5. ISBN978-0-387-97396-8.
5. ^ ^{a b c d} Elliot, S.R. (1984). Physics of Amorphous Materials. Longman group ltd. pp. ane–52. ISBN0-582-44636-eight.
6. ^ Neumann, Florin. "Glass: Liquid or Solid – Science vs. an Urban Legend". Archived from the original on ix April 2007. Retrieved viii April 2007.
7. ^ ^{a b c} Gibbs, Philip. "Is drinking glass liquid or solid?". Archived from the original on 29 March 2007. Retrieved 21 March 2007.
8. ^ "Philip Gibbs" Glass Worldwide, (May/June 2007), pp. fourteen–18
9. ^ Salmon, P.S. (2002). "Order inside disorder". Nature Materials. one (2): 87–8. doi:ten.1038/nmat737. PMID 12618817. S2CID 39062607.
10. ^ Vannoni, One thousand.; Sordini, A.; Molesini, G. (2011). "Relaxation time and viscosity of fused silica drinking glass at room temperature". Eur. Phys. J. E. 34 (ix): nine–14. doi:ten.1140/epje/i2011-11092-nine. PMID 21947892. S2CID 2246471.
11. ^ Anderson, P.W. (1995). "Through the Glass Lightly". Scientific discipline. 267 (5204): 1615–16. doi:10.1126/science.267.5204.1615-east. PMID 17808155. S2CID 28052338.
12. ^ Phillips, J.C. (1979). "Topology of covalent non-crystalline solids I: Short-range order in chalcogenide alloys". Periodical of Non-Crystalline Solids. 34 (ii): 153. Bibcode:1979JNCS...34..153P. doi:10.1016/0022-3093(79)90033-4.
13. ^ Folmer, J.C.W.; Franzen, Stefan (2003). "Study of polymer glasses by modulated differential scanning calorimetry in the undergraduate physical chemistry laboratory". Periodical of Chemical Education. eighty (7): 813. Bibcode:2003JChEd..80..813F. doi:10.1021/ed080p813.
14. ^ Loy, Jim. "Glass Is A Liquid?". Archived from the original on fourteen March 2007. Retrieved 21 March 2007.
15. ^ "Obsidian: Igneous Stone – Pictures, Uses, Backdrop". geology.com.
16. ^ "Impactites: Impact Breccia, Tektites, Moldavites, Shattercones". geology.com.
17. ^ Klein, Hermann Joseph (ane January 1881). Land, sea and sky; or, Wonders of life and nature, tr. from the Germ. [Dice Erde und ihr organisches Leben] of H.J. Klein and dr. Thomé, by J. Minshull.
18. ^ Giaimo, Cara (June thirty, 2017). "The Long, Weird Half-Life of Trinitite". Atlas Obscura . Retrieved July 8, 2017.
19. ^ Roperch, Pierrick; Gattacceca, Jérôme; Valenzuela, Millarca; Devouard, Bertrand; Lorand, Jean-Pierre; Arriagada, Cesar; Rochette, Pierre; Latorre, Claudio; Beck, Pierre (2017). "Surface vitrification caused by natural fires in Late Pleistocene wetlands of the Atacama Desert". Globe and Planetary Science Letters. 469 (1 July 2017): fifteen–26. Bibcode:2017E&PSL.469...15R. doi:x.1016/j.epsl.2017.04.009. S2CID 55581133.
20. ^ ^{a b c d e f} Ward-Harvey, K. (2009). Primal Edifice Materials. Universal-Publishers. pp. 83–90. ISBN978-1-59942-954-0.
21. ^ "Digs Reveal Rock-Age Weapons Manufacture With Staggering Output". National Geographic News. 13 April 2015.
22. ^ ^{a b c} Julian Henderson (2013). Ancient Glass. Cambridge University Printing. pp. 127–157. doi:x.1017/CBO9781139021883.006.
23. ^ "Glass Online: The History of Glass". Archived from the original on 24 October 2011. Retrieved 29 October 2007.
24. ^ "All Most Glass | Corning Museum of Glass". www.cmog.org.
25. ^ Karklins, Karlis (January 2013). "Simon Kwan -- Early Chinese Faience and Glass Chaplet and Pendants". BEADS: Journal of the Social club of Bead Researchers.
26. ^ Kenoyer, J.M (2001). "Bead Technologies at Harappa, 3300-1900 BC: A Comparative Summary". S Asian Archeology (PDF). Paris. pp. 157–170.
27. ^ McIntosh, Jane (2008). The Aboriginal Indus Valley: New Perspectives. ABC-CLIO. p. 99. ISBN978-1-57607-907-2.
28. ^ "How did Manufactured Glass Develop in the Bronze Age? - DailyHistory.org". dailyhistory.org.
29. ^ Wilde, H. "Technologische Innovationen im 2. Jahrtausend v. Chr. Zur Verwendung und Verbreitung neuer Werkstoffe im ostmediterranen Raum". GOF IV, Bd 44, Wiesbaden 2003, 25–26.
30. ^ Douglas, R.W. (1972). A history of glassmaking. Henley-on-Thames: G T Foulis & Co Ltd. p. 5. ISBN978-0-85429-117-5.
31. ^ Whitehouse, David (2003). Roman Glass in the Corning Museum of Drinking glass, Volume 3. Hudson Hills. p. 45. ISBN978-0-87290-155-one.
32. ^ The Art Journal. Virtue and Company. 1888. p. 365.
33. ^ Dark-brown, A.L. (November 1921). "The Manufacture of Glass Milk Bottles". The Glass Manufacture. Ashlee Publishing Company. 2 (eleven): 259.
34. ^ Aton, Francesca, Perfectly Preserved ii,000-Yr-Erstwhile Roman Glass Basin Unearthed in holland, Art News, January 25, 2022
35. ^ McGreevy, Nora, 2,000-Twelvemonth-Quondam Roman Bowl Discovered Intact in the Netherlands, National Geographic, January 28, 2022
36. ^ Dien, Albert E. (2007). Six Dynasties Civilisation. Yale Academy Press. p. 290. ISBN978-0-300-07404-8.
37. ^ Silberman, Neil Asher; Bauer, Alexander A. (2012). The Oxford Companion to Archaeology. Oxford University Press. p. 29. ISBN978-0-nineteen-973578-5.
38. ^ ^{a b c d} "glass | Definition, Composition, & Facts". Encyclopedia Britannica.
39. ^ Oliver, Roland, and Fagan, Brian Thousand. Africa in the Iron Age, c500 B.C. to A.D. 1400. New York: Cambridge University Printing, p. 187. ISBN 0-521-20598-0.
40. ^ Keller, Daniel; Price, Jennifer; Jackson, Caroline (2014). Neighbours and Successors of Rome: Traditions of Glass Product and apply in Europe and the Middle Eastward in the Later 1st Millennium AD. Oxbow Books. pp. 1–41. ISBN978-1-78297-398-0.
41. ^ Tutag, Nola Huse; Hamilton, Lucy (1987). Discovering Stained Glass in Detroit . Wayne State University Press. pp. 11. ISBN978-0-8143-1875-ane.
42. ^ Packard, Robert T.; Korab, Balthazar; Chase, William Dudley (1980). Encyclopedia of American architecture . McGraw-Loma. pp. 268. ISBN978-0-07-048010-0.
43. ^ ^{a b} 1 or more of the preceding sentences incorporates text from a publication now in the public domain:Chisholm, Hugh, ed. (1911). "Glass". Encyclopædia Britannica. Vol. 12 (11th ed.). Cambridge University Printing. p. 86.
44. ^ Freiman, Stephen (2007). Global Roadmap for Ceramic and Glass Technology. John Wiley & Sons. p. 705. ISBN978-0-470-10491-0.
45. ^ "Depression Glass". Archived from the original on 2 Dec 2014. Retrieved xix October 2007.
46. ^ Gelfand, Lisa; Duncan, Chris (2011). Sustainable Renovation: Strategies for Commercial Edifice Systems and Envelope. John Wiley & Sons. p. 187. ISBN978-1-118-10217-6.
47. ^ Lim, Henry W.; Honigsmann, Herbert; Hawk, John 50.M. (2007). Photodermatology. CRC Press. p. 274. ISBN978-1-4200-1996-four.
48. ^ Bach, Hans; Neuroth, Norbert (2012). The Properties of Optical Glass. Springer. p. 267. ISBN978-iii-642-57769-7.
49. ^ McLean, Ian S. (2008). Electronic Imaging in Astronomy: Detectors and Instrumentation. Springer Science & Business concern Media. p. 78. ISBN978-3-540-76582-0.
50. ^ ^{a b c} "Drinking glass Applications – Glass Alliance Europe". Glassallianceeurope.european union. Retrieved 1 March 2020.
51. ^ Enteria, Napoleon; Akbarzadeh, Aliakbar (2013). Solar Energy Sciences and Engineering Applications. CRC Printing. p. 122. ISBN978-0-203-76205-ix.
52. ^ "Gorilla Drinking glass maker unveils ultra-sparse and flexible Willow Glass". Physics News. Archived from the original on 6 November 2013. Retrieved 1 Nov 2013.
53. ^ "Xensation". Schott. Archived from the original on 3 November 2013. Retrieved one November 2013.
54. ^ Fingas, Jon (19 July 2018). "Gorilla Drinking glass half dozen gives phones a better shot at surviving multiple drops". Engadget.
55. ^ ^{a b c d} Bach, Hans; Neuroth, Norbert (2012). The Properties of Optical Glass. Springer. pp. i–11. ISBN978-3-642-57769-7.
56. ^ White, Mary Anne (2011). Physical Backdrop of Materials, 2d Edition. CRC Press. p. 70. ISBN978-1-4398-9532-0.
57. ^ Carter, C. Barry; Norton, M. Grant (2007). Ceramic Materials: Scientific discipline and Engineering. Springer Science & Concern Media. p. 583. ISBN978-0-387-46271-four.
58. ^ Mysen, Bjorn O.; Richet, Pascal (2005). Silicate Glasses and Melts: Properties and Structure. Elsevier. p. x.
59. ^ ^{a b c d east} "Industrial glass – Backdrop of drinking glass". Encyclopedia Britannica.
60. ^ Mattox, D.K. (2014). Handbook of Physical Vapor Degradation (PVD) Processing. Cambridge University Press. p. 60. ISBN978-0-08-094658-0.
61. ^ Zarzycki, Jerzy (1991). Glasses and the Vitreous State. Cambridge University Press. p. 361. ISBN978-0-521-35582-7.
62. ^ Thomas, Alfred; Jund, Michael (2013). Standoff Repair and Refinishing: A Foundation Course for Technicians. p. 365. ISBN978-1-133-60187-6.
63. ^ ^{a b} Gardner, Irvine Clifton; Hahner, Clarence H. (1949). Research and Development in Applied Optics and Optical Glass at the National Bureau of Standards: A Review and Bibliography. U.S. Government Printing Office. p. 13. ISBN9780598682413.
64. ^ Dudeja, Puja; Gupta, Rajul K.; Minhas, Amarjeet Singh (2016). Food Rubber in the 21st Century: Public Health Perspective. Academic Press. p. 550. ISBN978-0-12-801846-0.
65. ^ Bengisu, G. (2013). Engineering Ceramics. Springer Science & Business Media. p. 360. ISBN978-iii-662-04350-9.
66. ^ Batchelor, Andrew W.; Loh, Nee Lam; Chandrasekaran, Margam (2011). Materials Deposition and Its Control by Surface Engineering. World Scientific. p. 141. ISBN978-1-908978-14-1.
67. ^ ^{a b c d} Chawla, Sohan L. (1993). Materials Choice for Corrosion Control. ASM International. pp. 327–328. ISBN978-i-61503-728-five.
68. ^ Shaye Tempest (2004). "Density of Glass". The Physics Factbook: An encyclopedia of scientific essays. Wikidata Q87511351.
69. ^ "Glass Strength". www.pilkington.com. Archived from the original on 26 July 2017. Retrieved 24 November 2017.
70. ^ Kenneth Chang (29 July 2008). "The Nature of Drinking glass Remains Annihilation but Clear". The New York Times. Archived from the original on 24 April 2009. Retrieved 29 July 2008.
71. ^ Gulbiten, Ozgur; Mauro, John C.; Guo, Xiaoju; Boratav, Olus N. (3 Baronial 2017). "Sticky catamenia of medieval cathedral glass". Periodical of the American Ceramic Society. 101 (ane): 5–11. doi:10.1111/jace.15092. ISSN 0002-7820.
72. ^ Gocha, April (3 August 2017). "Glass viscosity calculations definitively debunk the myth of appreciable menses in medieval windows". The American Ceramic Society.
73. ^ ^{a b c} "Mining the sea sand". Seafriends. 8 February 1994. Archived from the original on 29 Feb 2012. Retrieved fifteen May 2012.
74. ^ ^{a b c d east f} "Glass – Chemical science Encyclopedia". Archived from the original on 2 April 2015. Retrieved one Apr 2015.
75. ^ ^{a b} B.H.Westward.S. de Jong, "Glass"; in "Ullmann'southward Encyclopedia of Industrial Chemistry"; 5th edition, vol. A12, VCH Publishers, Weinheim, Germany, 1989, ISBN 978-3-527-20112-nine, pp. 365–432.
76. ^ ^{a b} Spence, William P.; Kultermann, Eva (2016). Structure Materials, Methods and Techniques. Cengage Learning. pp. 510–526. ISBN978-1-305-08627-2.
77. ^ "Properties of PYREX®, PYREXPLUS® and Low Actinic PYREX Code 7740 Glasses" (PDF). Corning, Inc. Archived (PDF) from the original on 13 January 2012. Retrieved xv May 2012.
78. ^ "AR-GLAS® Technical Data" (PDF). Schott, Inc. Archived (PDF) from the original on 12 June 2012.
79. ^ Shelby, J.Due east. (2017). Introduction to Glass Science and Technology. Royal Society of Chemistry. p. 125. ISBN978-0-85404-639-3.
80. ^ Schwartz, Mel (2002). Encyclopedia of Materials, Parts and Finishes (Second ed.). CRC Press. p. 352. ISBN978-one-4200-1716-8.
81. ^ Shackelford, James F.; Doremus, Robert H. (12 April 2008). Ceramic and Glass Materials: Structure, Backdrop and Processing. Springer Science & Business Media. p. 158. ISBN978-0-387-73362-three.
82. ^ Askeland, Donald R.; Fulay, Pradeep P. (2008). Essentials of Materials Science & Engineering. Cengage Learning. p. 485. ISBN978-0-495-24446-ii.
83. ^ "Glass Ingredients – What is Glass Made Of?". www.historyofglass.com. Archived from the original on 23 Apr 2017. Retrieved 23 Apr 2017.
84. ^ Pfaender, Heinz G. (1996). Schott guide to glass. Springer. pp. 135, 186. ISBN978-0-412-62060-7. Archived from the original on 25 May 2013. Retrieved 8 February 2011.
85. ^ Doering, Robert; Nishi, Yoshio (2007). Handbook of semiconductor manufacturing applied science. CRC Press. pp. 12–13. ISBN978-ane-57444-675-iii.
86. ^ ^{a b c} Holand, Wolfram; Beall, George H. (2012). Glass Ceramic Applied science. John Wiley & Sons. pp. i–38. ISBN978-ane-118-26592-5.
87. ^ Richerson, David West. (1992). Modern ceramic engineering : properties, processing and use in pattern (2nd ed.). New York: Dekker. pp. 577–578. ISBN978-0-8247-8634-ii.
88. ^ ^{a b} Parkyn, Brian (2013). Glass Reinforced Plastics. Elsevier. pp. 3–41. ISBN978-ane-4831-0298-6.
89. ^ Mayer, Rayner M. (1993). Design with reinforced plastics. Springer. p. 7. ISBN978-0-85072-294-9.
90. ^ ^{a b} "Properties of Matter Reading Selection: Perfect Teamwork". www.propertiesofmatter.si.edu. Archived from the original on 12 May 2016. Retrieved 25 Apr 2017.
91. ^ ^{a b} "Fibreglass | drinking glass". Encyclopedia Britannica.
92. ^ Greer, A. Lindsay; Mathur, Northward (2005). "Materials science: Irresolute Face of the Chameleon". Nature. 437 (7063): 1246–1247. Bibcode:2005Natur.437.1246G. doi:10.1038/4371246a. PMID 16251941. S2CID 6972351.
93. ^ Rivera, V. A. G.; Manzani, Danilo (30 March 2017). Technological Advances in Tellurite Glasses: Backdrop, Processing, and Applications. Springer. p. 214. ISBN978-3-319-53038-three.
94. ^ Jiang, Xin; Lousteau, Joris; Richards, Baton; Jha, Animesh (1 September 2009). "Investigation on germanium oxide-based spectacles for infrared optical fibre evolution". Optical Materials. 31 (xi): 1701–1706. Bibcode:2009OptMa..31.1701J. doi:ten.1016/j.optmat.2009.04.011.
95. ^ J. Westward. E. Drewitt; S. Jahn; 50. Hennet (2019). "Configurational constraints on glass formation in the liquid calcium aluminate organization". Journal of Statistical Mechanics: Theory and Experiment. 2019 (10): 104012. arXiv:1909.07645. Bibcode:2019JSMTE..10.4012D. doi:x.1088/1742-5468/ab47fc. S2CID 202583753.
96. ^ C. J. Benmore; J. K. R. Weber (2017). "Aerodynamic levitation, supercooled liquids and glass formation". Advances in Physics: X. 2 (three): 717–736. Bibcode:2017AdPhX...2..717B. doi:ten.1080/23746149.2017.1357498.
97. ^ Davies, H. A.; Hull J. B. (1976). "The formation, structure and crystallization of non-crystalline nickel produced by splat-quenching". Journal of Materials Science. 11 (2): 707–717. Bibcode:1976JMatS..11..215D. doi:10.1007/BF00551430. S2CID 137403190.
98. ^ Klement, Westward. Jr.; Willens, R.H.; Duwez, Pol (1960). "Non-crystalline Structure in Solidified Gold-Silicon Alloys". Nature. 187 (4740): 869. Bibcode:1960Natur.187..869K. doi:x.1038/187869b0. S2CID 4203025.
99. ^ Liebermann, H.; Graham, C. (1976). "Product of Amorphous Blend Ribbons and Effects of Apparatus Parameters on Ribbon Dimensions". IEEE Transactions on Magnetics. 12 (6): 921. Bibcode:1976ITM....12..921L. doi:10.1109/TMAG.1976.1059201.
100. ^ Ponnambalam, 5.; Poon, South. Joseph; Shiflet, Gary J. (2004). "Fe-based majority metallic glasses with bore thickness larger than one centimeter". Journal of Materials Enquiry. 19 (5): 1320. Bibcode:2004JMatR..19.1320P. doi:x.1557/JMR.2004.0176.
101. ^ "Metallurgy Partitioning Publications". NIST Interagency Report 7127. Archived from the original on 16 September 2008.
102. ^ Mendelev, Thousand.I.; Schmalian, J.; Wang, C.Z.; Morris, J.R.; K.Grand. Ho (2006). "Interface Mobility and the Liquid-Drinking glass Transition in a Ane-Component System". Physical Review B. 74 (10): 104206. Bibcode:2006PhRvB..74j4206M. doi:10.1103/PhysRevB.74.104206.
103. ^ "A primary research field: Polymer glasses". www-ics.u-strasbg.fr. Archived from the original on 25 May 2016.
104. ^ Carraher, Charles E. Jr. (2012). Introduction to Polymer Chemical science. CRC Press. p. 274. ISBN978-i-4665-5495-5.
105. ^ Scarlet, S.L.; Pelah, I. (2013). "Crystals, Supercooled Liquids, and Glasses in Frozen Aqueous Solutions". In Gruverman, Irwin J. (ed.). Mössbauer Consequence Methodology: Volume 6 Proceedings of the 6th Symposium on Mössbauer Result Methodology New York City, January 25, 1970. Springer Science & Business Media. p. 21. ISBN978-i-4684-3159-9.
106. ^ Levine, Harry; Slade, Louise (2013). Water Relationships in Foods: Advances in the 1980s and Trends for the 1990s. Springer Science & Business organization Media. p. 226. ISBN978-1-4899-0664-9.
107. ^ Dupuy J, Jal J, Prével B, Aouizerat-Elarby A, Chieux P, Dianoux AJ, Legrand J (October 1992). "Vibrational dynamics and structural relaxation in aqueous electrolyte solutions in the liquid, undercooled liquid and glassy states" (PDF). Journal de Physique IV. two (C2): C2-179–C2-184. Bibcode:1992JPhy4...2C.179D. doi:10.1051/jp4:1992225. S2CID 39468740. European Workshop on Glasses and Gels.
108. ^ Hartel, Richard Due west.; Hartel, AnnaKate (2014). Candy Bites: The Science of Sweets. Springer Science & Business Media. p. 38. ISBN978-ane-4614-9383-ix.
109. ^ Charbel Tengroth (2001). "Structure of Ca0.4K0.half-dozen(NO3)1.4 from the glass to the liquid country". Phys. Rev. B. 64 (22): 224207. Bibcode:2001PhRvB..64v4207T. doi:10.1103/PhysRevB.64.224207.
110. ^ "Lithium-Ion Pioneer Introduces New Battery That'due south Three Times Amend". Fortune. Archived from the original on 9 April 2017. Retrieved 6 May 2017.
111. ^ "PFG Glass". Pfg.co.za. Archived from the original on half-dozen Nov 2009. Retrieved 24 October 2009.
112. ^ Code of Federal Regulations, Title xl,: Protection of Surround, Part lx (Sections 60.one-end), Revised As of July 1, 2011. Government Printing Office. October 2011. ISBN978-0-16-088907-3.
113. ^ Brawl, Douglas J.; Norwood, Daniel L.; Stults, Cheryl L. 1000.; Nagao, Lee M. (24 Jan 2012). Leachables and Extractables Handbook: Safety Evaluation, Qualification, and Best Practices Applied to Inhalation Drug Products. John Wiley & Sons. p. 552. ISBN978-0-470-17365-seven.
114. ^ Chisholm, Hugh, ed. (1911). "Drinking glass". Encyclopædia Britannica. Vol. 12 (11th ed.). Cambridge University Press. pp. 87–105.
115. ^ "windshields how they are made". autoglassguru. Retrieved ix February 2018.
116. ^ Pantano, Carlo. "Drinking glass Surface Treatments: Commercial Processes Used in Glass Manufacture" (PDF).
117. ^ ^{a b} "Glass melting, Pacific Northwest National Laboratory". Depts.washington.edu. Archived from the original on five May 2010. Retrieved 24 October 2009.
118. ^ Fluegel, Alexander. "Glass melting in the laboratory". Glassproperties.com. Archived from the original on 13 Feb 2009. Retrieved 24 October 2009.
119. ^ ^{a b c d e f} Mukherjee, Swapna (2013). The Scientific discipline of Clays: Applications in Industry, Applied science, and Surround. Springer Science & Business Media. p. 142. ISBN978-nine-4007-6683-9.
120. ^ Walker, Perrin; Tarn, William H. (1990). CRC Handbook of Metal Etchants. CRC press. p. 798. ISBN978-1-4398-2253-1.
121. ^ ^{a b} Langhamer, Antonín (2003). The Legend of Maverick Drinking glass: A 1000 Years of Glassmaking in the Heart of Europe. Tigris. p. 273. ISBN978-8-0860-6211-2.
122. ^ "three. Drinking glass, Colour and the Source of Cobalt". Net Archaeology.
123. ^ Chemical Fact Canvas – Chromium Archived 2017-08-fifteen at the Wayback Machine www.speclab.com.
124. ^ David M Issitt. Substances Used in the Making of Coloured Glass 1st.glassman.com.
125. ^ Shelby, James Due east. (2007). Introduction to Glass Science and Technology. Purple Society of Chemistry. p. 211. ISBN978-1-84755-116-0.
126. ^ ^{a b} Nicholson, Paul T.; Shaw, Ian (2000). Ancient Egyptian Materials and Technology. Cambridge Academy Press. p. 208. ISBN978-0-521-45257-1.
127. ^ Weller, Bernhard; Unnewehr, Stefan; Tasche, Silke; Härth, Kristina (2012). Drinking glass in Building: Principles, Applications, Examples. Walter de Gruyter. pp. i–xix. ISBN978-three-0346-1571-vi.
128. ^ ^{a b} "The ascent of glass buildings". Drinking glass Times. 9 Jan 2017. Retrieved i March 2020.
129. ^ Patterson, Mic (2011). Structural Glass Facades and Enclosures. Jon Wiley & Sons. p. 29. ISBN978-0-470-93185-1.
130. ^ Hynes, Michael; Jonson, Bo (1997). "Pb, drinking glass and the environment". Chemical Gild Reviews. 26 (2): 145. doi:10.1039/CS9972600133.
131. ^ "Cut glass | decorative arts". Encyclopedia Britannica.
132. ^ "High temperature glass melt belongings database for procedure modeling"; Eds.: Thomas P. Seward Three and Terese Vascott; The American Ceramic Society, Westerville, Ohio, 2005, ISBN 1-57498-225-7
133. ^ "Why choose Glass?". FEVE.
134. ^ Sun, P.; et, al. (2018). "Design and Fabrication of Drinking glass-based Integrated Passive Devices". IEEE, 19th International Conference on Electronic Packaging Technology (ICEPT): 59–63. doi:10.1109/ICEPT.2018.8480458. ISBN978-1-5386-6386-8. S2CID 52935909.
135. ^ Letz, M.; et, al. (2018). "Glass in Electronic Packaging and Integration: High Q Inductances for 2.35 GHz Impedance Matching in 0.05 mm Thin Glass Substrates". IEEE 68th Electronic Components and Technology Conference (ECTC): 1089–1096. doi:x.1109/ECTC.2018.00167. ISBN978-1-5386-4999-ii. S2CID 51972637.
136. ^ Lundén, H.; et, al. (2004). "Novel glass welding technique for hermetic encapsulation". Proceedings of the 5th Electronics System-integration Technology Conference (ESTC): 1–iv. doi:10.1109/ESTC.2014.6962719. ISBN978-1-4799-4026-4. S2CID 9980556.
137. ^ ^{a b} Zumdahl, Steven (2013). Lab Manual. Cengage Learning. pp. ix–xv. ISBN978-1-285-69235-7.
138. ^ "Science Nether Drinking glass". National Museum of American History. 29 July 2015.
139. ^ Basudeb, Karmakar (2017). Functional Spectacles and Drinking glass-Ceramics: Processing, Backdrop and Applications. Butterworth-Heinemann. pp. 3–5. ISBN978-0-12-805207-v.
140. ^ "Scientific Glassblowing | National Museum of American History". Americanhistory.si.edu. 17 Dec 2012. Retrieved 4 March 2020.
141. ^ Tut's gem hints at space bear on, BBC News, July 19, 2006.
142. ^ The Earliest Cloisonné Enamels
143. ^ Arwas, Victor (1996). The Art of Glass: Art Nouveau to Fine art Deco. pp. 1–54. ISBN978-ane-901092-00-4.
144. ^ "A-Z of glass". Victoria and Albert Museum. Retrieved 9 March 2020.

External links

• "Glass". Encyclopædia Britannica. Vol. 12 (11th ed.). 1911.
• The Story of Glass Making in Canada from The Canadian Museum of Civilization.
• "How Your Glass Ware Is Made" past George West. Waltz, Feb 1951, Popular Science.
• All Nigh Drinking glass from the Corning Museum of Glass: a collection of articles, multimedia, and virtual books all almost drinking glass, including the Glass Lexicon.
• National Glass Clan—The largest merchandise association representing the flat (architectural), auto drinking glass, and window & door industries

1000 Ml Is Equal To,

Source: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Glass

Posted by: foxarned2000.blogspot.com

Share this post